Perceived Well-being in the School Context and Its Relations with Learning and Development

Dani Michel Hamra; Juliana Cristina da Silva

DOI: 10.22167/2675-6528-202602802

Article derived from a Final Course Work (TCC), with content based on the student’s original work and adapted to the editorial format of the E&S Magazine with the support of the ResumeAI tool, an artificial intelligence solution developed by the Pecege Institute for textual synthesis and organization.

Abstract

The perception of well-being in the school context and its relationship with learning and development constitutes a relevant field of study, especially in light of neuroscience. The perception of well-being of young university students in relation to their school experiences in high school was investigated, articulating quantitative and qualitative data with the fundamentals of the neuroscience of learning. The research, with a mixed approach, was conducted through a structured questionnaire applied to 60 Business Administration students (18-21 years old) from a private higher education institution in São Paulo. The instrument covered five thematic axes, and the data were analyzed by descriptive statistics, GAP calculation, and Pearson correlation, in addition to content analysis for the qualitative responses. The results revealed that 68.7% of the participants positively assessed school well-being, while 78.1% considered the evaluated elements important, showing a systematic GAP between perceived importance and experienced well-being in all axes. The teaching, methodology, and assessment axis presented the largest GAP (+1.1), the lowest well-being average (3.07), and the highest standard deviation (1.09), configuring itself as the most critical dimension. The human relations axis registered the best indicators (average 4.35; 86.7% positive), confirming interpersonal connection as the main protective factor. Qualitative analysis identified gaps in preparation for adult life and career, development of socio-emotional skills and autonomy, promotion of coexistence and belonging, and financial education. The findings converged with neuroscientific literature, offering empirical subsidies for reflection on educational practices that promote the integral development of students.

Keywords: School well-being; High school; Executive functions; Learning neuroscience; Student perception.

1. Introduction

The debate on the need to transform traditional educational models has gained momentum in recent decades, driven by the cognitive, technological, and social transformations of the 21st century. The school, as a space for the integral formation of human beings, faces the challenge of aligning its pedagogical practices with scientific discoveries about how the brain works and the learning processes. In this context, the neuroscience of learning has contributed significantly to understanding how educational environments can foster or hinder the cognitive and socio-emotional development of students (Lent, 2010; Cosenza; Guerra, 2011).

Among the advances in this field, executive functions stand out, a set of cognitive skills responsible for planning, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, and emotional self-regulation (Miyake Et Al., 2000; Diamond, 2013). These functions, associated with the prefrontal areas of the brain, are fundamental for academic performance and for the development of social competencies, such as empathy and decision-making (Damásio, 2011; Sousa 2017). However, pedagogical practices centered on memorization and content standardization prove to be ineffective for the development of these capacities, and may even harm them (Arnstén, 2009).

Additionally, studies on toxic stress show that adverse childhood and adolescent experiences, including negative school environments, can compromise the functioning of the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus, affecting memory, attention, and executive functions (Burke Harris, 2018; Shonkoff; Garner, 2012). The absence of secure bonds and adequate emotional support prevents the organism’s physiological regulation, impacting not only academic performance but global development. In this sense, school well-being plays a central role in the learning process. The integration between emotion and cognition constitutes one of the pillars of contemporary neuroeducation, acting interdependently in the construction of knowledge, with the affective dimension being constitutive of learning (Cosenza; Guerra, 2011; Immordino-Yang; Damásio, 2007). Environments that promote safety, belonging, and appreciation favor engagement and memory consolidation, enhancing the development of executive functions and self-regulation (Jensen, 2008; Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2014; Diamond; Ling, 2016).

In this context, school well-being has been pointed out as a relevant predictor of motivation and academic performance (Konu; Rimpela, 2002; Seligman, 2011, Seligman et al., 2009). The PERMA model (Seligman, 2011) proposes that well-being is multidimensional, involving positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment, dimensions that permeate the school experience. This perspective underpins positive education approaches applied to the educational context (Seligman et al., 2009). In Brazil, authors such as Lent (2010) and Moraes (2015) reinforce the need for an education that integrates cognition and emotion, promoting the pleasure of learning. Freire (1996), in proposing a pedagogy of autonomy, already pointed to the importance of the student’s active participation, a principle aligned with Self-Determination Theory, which highlights autonomy, competence, and belonging as bases for intrinsic motivation (Ryan; Deci, 2000).

Despite the advance of scientific evidence, its incorporation into pedagogical practices still occurs slowly and fragmentedly. A gap persists between the knowledge produced by neuroscience and its application in daily school life. In this scenario, it becomes fundamental to investigate students’ perception of their school experiences, especially those who have already completed high school and have a greater capacity for critical reflection. The retrospective perspective of young university students allows for a more distant and analytical evaluation of the school experience, while preserving the affective relevance of their experiences.

Thus, this work aims to investigate the perception of well-being of young university students in relation to their school experiences in high school, articulating quantitative and qualitative data on different dimensions of the school context and analyzing them in light of the fundamentals of the neuroscience of learning. The goal is to identify factors that favor or hinder learning and integral development, contributing to reflection on educational practices and offering empirical subsidies for educators, managers, and educational policymakers.

2. Material and Methods

The research adopted a field survey design, with a mixed methodological approach, integrating quantitative and qualitative elements. This combination allowed for capturing general perception patterns and exploring participants’ subjective experience, conferring greater validity and interpretive depth to the data (Creswell; Creswell, 2018). During preparation, artificial intelligence was used to enhance the grammar and academic tone of the text, with subsequent human review and editing to ensure full accountability for the content.

The sample consisted of 60 university students (18-21 years old), regularly enrolled in the first four semesters of Business Administration at a private higher education institution in São Paulo, SP. All of them completed high school in Brazilian institutions. The choice of this profile was justified by the temporal proximity to the high school experience and by the capacity for critical reflection. Participation was voluntary, with anonymity and confidentiality of responses, in accordance with Resolution no. 510/2016 of the National Health Council (BRASIL, 2016).

The data collection instrument consisted of a structured online questionnaire, organized into five main thematic axes, covering 24 specific items of the school context. The axes were: (I) School organization and routine; (II) Physical environment and resources; (III) Teaching, methodology, and assessments; (IV) Human relations and social climate; and (V) Expanded experiences and alternative formats. For each axis, participants evaluated their perceived well-being on a five-point Likert scale (1=”affected very negatively” to 5=”affected very positively”), justified their choice, and suggested improvements.

At the end of the questionnaire, two complementary questions were included: one prospective, about what participants would have liked to have in their school experience, and another for ranking importance. In this last one, the 24 items from the five axes were evaluated on a five-point Likert scale (1=”extremely important” to 5=”not important at all”). For analysis, this scale was recoded, assigning 5 to the “extremely important” level and 1 to the “not important at all” level, so that higher values indicated greater perceived importance.

The choice of well-being as the central axis of the instrument was based on scientific evidence indicating the direct influence of emotional and contextual conditions on essential cognitive processes, such as attention, working memory, executive functions, and learning (Immordino-Yang; Damásio, 2007; Cosenza & Guerra, 2011; Shonkoff). The recoding of the importance scale was carried out to enable the calculation of Pearson’s correlation and the GAP indicator, ensuring the same interpretative direction between the scales.

Data collection was carried out through an online questionnaire, with assisted in-person application at the partner institution. All participants signed the Free and Informed Consent Form (TCLE), being informed about the research objectives, the voluntariness of participation, the possibility of interruption without penalty, and the guarantee of anonymity. No personally identifiable data was collected.

Quantitative responses were subjected to descriptive statistical analysis, with calculation of relative frequencies, percentages, weighted means, and standard deviations for each thematic axis and item. Additionally, a GAP indicator was calculated, defined as the difference between the mean perceived importance and the mean perceived well-being for each axis, and the Pearson correlation between importance and well-being.

The answers to the open-ended questions were submitted to content analysis, following the procedures proposed by Laurence Bardin (2016). This process comprised the stages of pre-analysis, material exploration, and results treatment. The answers were organized into thematic categories, using inductive analysis that considered the recurrence, relevance, and meaning attributed by the participants.

For systematization and integration with quantitative analysis, a binary coding procedure was adopted, registering the presence of a theme as 1 and its absence as 0. This procedure enabled the measurement of the relative frequencies of the identified categories, allowing for the identification of recurring patterns. This strategy was based on an integrative quanti-qualitative approach, seeking to preserve the interpretive richness of the responses and enable their systematic and comparable analysis.

3. Results and Discussion

The investigation into the perception of well-being among young university students regarding their high school experiences revealed a complex panorama, marked by predominantly positive evaluations, but also by significant gaps between what was experienced and what is considered important. It was found that 68.7% of participants positively evaluated school well-being, while 17.7% indicated a negative perception and 13.7% positioned themselves neutrally. However, this positive evaluation should be interpreted with caution, considering that the sample is composed of students from a private higher education institution, which may introduce a socioeconomic bias in the responses.

In contrast to the perception of well-being, the importance attributed to the 24 items evaluated across the five thematic axes was even higher, with 78.1% of participants considering them important or extremely important. Notably, 43.9% of the responses concentrated on the maximum level of importance. The average standard deviation for perceived importance was 0.53, significantly lower than the standard deviation of 0.93 for well-being, indicating greater consensus among students about what is relevant to the school experience, compared to the variability of the experiences encountered. This asymmetry, with a difference of 9.4 percentage points between the proportion of positive experiences and that of items considered important, suggests a gap between what students value and what they actually found in their school trajectories.

The analysis of the GAP indicator, which represents the difference between perceived importance and experienced well-being, revealed a systematic pattern of gaps. In four out of the five thematic axes, the GAP was positive, ranging from +0.05 to +1.1, meaning that importance surpassed perceived well-being. Only in Axis V, concerning expanded experiences and alternative formats, was the GAP negative (-0.23). This result indicates that, overall, schools did not fully meet students’ expectations regarding various aspects considered crucial for well-being. This finding aligns with Seligman’s (2011) PERMA model, which conceives well-being as a multidimensional construct encompassing positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and achievements, dimensions directly applicable to the educational context.

In a more detailed analysis by thematic axis, Axis III, which addresses teaching, methodology, and assessments, was configured as the most critical dimension of the research. It presented the largest GAP (+1.1), the lowest average well-being (3.1), and the highest standard deviation (1.16), indicating a high polarization in participants’ perceptions, with 43.3% evaluating negatively and 45% positively. Demands for improvement for this axis focused on changing exams and methodologies (33% each), reducing content load (23%), and more practical projects and exercises (18% and 17%, respectively). These results suggest a generalized dissatisfaction with traditional pedagogical approaches, which appear to be misaligned with students’ expectations for more active and contextualized learning.

From a neuroscientific point of view, evaluative systems based on memorization and carried out under pressure elevate cortisol levels, which inhibits the functioning of the prefrontal cortex, essential for executive functions and deep learning (Diamond, 2013; Mora, 2017). In contrast, active methodologies, which promote participation and engagement, activate dopaminergic reward systems, favoring memory consolidation and intrinsic motivation (Bransford; Brown; Cocking, 2000). Hattie’s (2009) meta-analysis also corroborates the effectiveness of formative feedback and metacognitive strategies. The low satisfaction in this axis, with only 10% of participants not wishing for changes, reinforces the urgency of a pedagogical transformation that integrates the discoveries of the neuroscience of learning.

In contrast, Axis IV, referring to human relations and social climate, presented the best indicators in the survey, with a well-being average of 4.4 and 86.7% positive evaluations. The almost null GAP (+0.05) and the fact that 51.7% of respondents have a negative GAP (well-being greater than importance) confirm that interpersonal connection is perceived as a protective factor and a promoter of school well-being. This finding is consistent with the neuroscientific literature, which highlights the deeply social nature of the human brain and the interdependence between emotion and cognition in learning processes (Immordino-Yang; Damásio, 2007). Adolescence, in particular, is a phase of intense reorganization of circuits related to social cognition, making young people sensitive to belonging and the quality of interactions (Blakemore; Choudhury, 2006).

Despite the positive indicators, the qualitative analysis revealed demands for more human relations (25%) and greater integration between classes (22%), suggesting that, even in favorable contexts, there is room for improvement in relational dimensions. The quality of the teaching staff was also pointed out as heterogeneous, with 13% of participants requesting a change or alignment of teachers and more support. Studies such as Pianta (1999) indicate that the quality of the teacher-student relationship can vary significantly within the same school. School environments that promote supportive, respectful, and recognized bonds are associated with sustained improvements in well-being, social skills, and academic performance (Taylor et al., 2017), reinforcing the importance of investing in teacher relational training.

Axis V, which encompasses expanded experiences and alternative formats, presented the highest correlation (0.37) between well-being and importance, indicating that when these experiences were positive, their relevance was more consistently recognized. However, this axis also registered the lowest average importance (3.6) and a high percentage of neutral responses (28.3%) for well-being, suggesting that many students did not have sufficient access to these experiences. The main demands focused on more activities and options (65%) and flexible routine with time (65%). Physical, artistic, and cultural activities are recognized by neuroscience for promoting neuroplasticity, emotional regulation, and well-being (Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2014; Diamond; Ling, 2016), and their underutilization represents a missed opportunity for integral development.

The ambivalence towards remote classes, with 12% of participants desiring improvements and 8% preferring their elimination, reflects the heterogeneous experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic. For some, the remote format offered flexibility and autonomy, while for others, it resulted in social isolation and engagement difficulties. The request for greater autonomy in choosing activities (12%) reinforces the principle of intrinsic motivation from Self-Determination Theory (Ryan; Deci, 2000), which highlights autonomy, competence, and belonging as bases for engagement. The possibility of active choice activates dopaminergic reward circuits, promoting intrinsic motivation and well-being.

In Axis I, referring to school organization and routine, the average well-being was 3.6 and the average importance was 4.0, resulting in a GAP of +0.4. The correlation between the two dimensions was 0.05, practically null, indicating that the importance attributed to structural and logistical elements does not translate directly into the well-being experience. The demand for changes in class schedules was mentioned by 53% of participants, and starting classes at a later time by 20%. These data are supported by adolescent chronobiology, which points to a biological shift in circadian rhythm, making early morning schedules detrimental to sleep, mood, and cognitive performance (Carskadon, 2011). Longer and more frequent active breaks are also neuroscientifically grounded for memory consolidation and attention restoration (Jensen, 2008).

Axis II, which deals with the physical environment and resources, demonstrated the greatest consensus of importance, with an average of 4.3 and 87% of responses at the higher levels. Perceived well-being was 4.0, with 78.4% of positive evaluations. The main demands included more rest and socialization spaces (38%) and improvement in nutrition (35%). Scientific literature confirms that physical environment characteristics, such as lighting, ventilation, and spatial organization, influence learning progress (Barrett et al., 2015). Adequate nutrition is also directly associated with cognitive functions such as attention and working memory (Young et al., 2026). Although 30% of participants were satisfied with the physical environment, the request for less noise (12%) is crucial, as excessive noise compromises speech comprehension, attention, and working memory, in addition to increasing cognitive stress (Klatte, Bergström & Lachmann, 2013).

The qualitative analysis of the open-ended questions revealed four thematic cores of gaps perceived by the students. The most frequent core (23 participants) pointed to the insufficient development of practical, socio-emotional, and autonomy skills. Participants identified the absence of training in skills such as communication, public speaking, teamwork, critical thinking, decision-making, metacognition, and financial education. These are precisely the executive functions and socio-emotional skills mediated by the prefrontal cortex, which develop critically during adolescence (Diamond, 2013; Siegel, 2016; Sousa, 2017), and whose underutilization represents a lost window of opportunity for integral development.

Another thematic core (21 participants) highlighted the insufficient preparation for the school-to-adult life and career transition, including the lack of professional guidance, contact with real professions, applicability of content, and development of practical skills. This perception of disconnection between the school curriculum and the reality of the adult and working world is a recurring theme in educational literature. Heckman and Kautz (2012) demonstrate that non-cognitive skills are as predictive or more predictive of professional and social success as traditional academic skills, but they are rarely explicitly cultivated in schools, evidencing a curricular gap that needs to be filled.

The third core group (15 participants) pointed to insufficient promotion of coexistence, belonging, and socio-emotional development in the school environment. Even with Axis IV (Human Relations) showing the best well-being indicators, there are still perceived gaps in the lack of structured coexistence, sense of community, and a school culture that actively values belonging. The sense of school belonging is a robust predictor of engagement, motivation, and mental health in adolescents (Goodenow, 1993; Baumeister; Leary, 1995), and its deliberate promotion represents an intervention with high potential impact on students’ well-being and integral development.

Financial education emerged as a cross-cutting demand, mentioned by eight participants in multiple core groups, signaling a specific curricular gap clearly perceived by this generation of Administration students. This demand, although specific to the group studied, likely reflects a broader need among Brazilian youth, who seek training more aligned with the demands of adult life. The fourth thematic core group (seven participants) brought together those who declared themselves satisfied and would not change anything, a percentage consistent with the quantitative data on full satisfaction observed in the previous axes.

Cross-cutting qualitative perceptions revealed recurring discursive axes that deepen the understanding of quantitative data. The perceived dehumanization in the school environment was a central theme, with reports that the school treated students as “numbers and not people,” generating anxiety and “extreme judgment.” Environments perceived as threatening or indifferent chronically activate the stress response system, compromising the prefrontal cortex’s availability for learning functions (Burke Harris, 2018; Shonkoff; Garner, 2012). The demand for a “more humanized” environment and for accessible and welcoming leadership is, therefore, a fundamental need for well-being and learning.

The inadequacy of the physical environment was also a relevant discursive axis, with reports of overcrowded classrooms (up to 50 students), closed environments, excessive noise, and uncomfortable furniture. These conditions are not just matters of comfort, but limit the teacher’s ability to offer individualized attention and formative feedback, which are high-impact interventions in learning (Hattie, 2009). Excessive noise, in particular, requires the brain to dedicate more resources to auditory processing, reducing the availability of cognitive resources for learning (Klatte, Bergström & Lachmann, 2013).

The evaluative hegemony and its effects on the relationship with knowledge constituted another discursive axis. Multiple accounts converged on the diagnosis of a system of weekly tests, without evaluative alternatives, which transformed the relationship with knowledge into a “survival” dynamic. Many students stated that they studied to pass, not to learn. This chronic evaluative stress compromises deep learning, directing cognitive resources towards temporary retention at the expense of understanding and elaboration (Diamond, 2013; Mora, 2017). Suggestions for quarterly or bimonthly assessments, inclusion of projects and presentations, and preparatory simulations indicate a desire for more formative and less punitive approaches.

The heterogeneity of teaching quality was also a highlight, with one participant estimating that “75% were very good professionals; the other 25% I feel contributed negatively to our experience”. Suggestions point to the need for training, quality standardization, and greater hiring criteria. Relational competence, i.e., the ability to welcome, listen, and create psychological safety, is perceived by students as equally important as content mastery (Jolles; Jolles, 2021). The demands for mentorship and elective courses, inspired by the university experience, reveal a search for a more individualized and supportive pedagogical relationship.

The demand for comprehensive training beyond the academic was expressed by multiple participants, who wished for the school to be “a space more focused on developing great people”, with group work for the “social side of students”, activities focused on “soft skills and not only intellectual but human development”, and an environment that stimulated “self-performance”. Heckman and Kautz (2012) demonstrate that characteristics such as persistence, self-control, and social competence are as predictive of life outcomes as traditional academic skills. The fact that Business Administration students spontaneously articulate this demand reveals a mature awareness that the school has technically prepared them, but left gaps in the development of capacities mediated by the prefrontal cortex maturing during adolescence (Diamond, 2013; Blakemore; Choudhury, 2006).

Finally, the impact of school overload on physical health and the role of extracurricular activities emerged as an important discursive axis. Participants reported that the heavy routine prevented regular physical activity, compromising well-being. In contrast, those who had access to quality activities described them as transformative. Regular physical activity promotes hippocampal neurogenesis, increased BDNF, and improved executive functions (Diamond; Ling, 2016). When the school structure hinders exercise by saturating the student’s time, it paradoxically compromises the neurobiological conditions that support the learning it aims to promote. The suggestion of an elective system and the removal of mandatory sports align with the principle of intrinsic motivation (Ryan; Deci, 2000).

A relevant complementary finding was the retrospective maturity demonstrated by several participants, who, with the temporal distance and the cognitive development inherent in the transition to adulthood, were able to re-evaluate their school experiences. Some recognized the formative value of elements previously perceived as negative, which lends additional credibility to the criticisms formulated. This capacity for thoughtful analysis suggests that the experience lived by students constitutes a legitimate and underutilized source of educational diagnosis, offering valuable insights for improving pedagogical practices.

In summary, the results of this research provide a coherent and multidimensional diagnosis of the school experience, revealing that well-being is recognized as a central dimension for student development. Human relationships stand out as the main protective factor, while teaching, methodology, and assessments represent the most critical point, with significant gaps between perceived importance and lived experience. There is an expressive demand for skills that the school has not yet managed to cultivate, such as socio-emotional skills and preparation for adult life. These findings consistently converge with neuroscientific literature, reinforcing the urgency of an educational transformation that promotes the integral development of students, aligning pedagogical practices with evidence on how the brain learns and develops.

4. Conclusion

This research investigated the well-being perception of young university students regarding their high school experiences, articulating quantitative and qualitative data with the fundamentals of learning neuroscience. It was found that, although 68.7% of participants positively assessed school well-being, an even larger proportion, 78.1%, considered the evaluated elements important, evidencing a systematic GAP between perceived importance and effectively experienced well-being. The teaching, methodology, and assessment axis emerged as the most critical dimension, presenting the largest GAP (+1.1), the lowest well-being average (3.07), and the highest standard deviation (1.09), suggesting dissatisfaction with traditional pedagogical approaches that misalign with neuroscientific evidence on active learning and the impact of assessment stress. In contrast, the human relations and social climate axis registered the best indicators, with an average of 4.35 and 86.7% positive assessments, confirming interpersonal connection as the main protective factor and well-being promoter, in line with the social nature of the human brain. The qualitative analysis complemented these findings, revealing gaps in preparation for adult life and career, in the development of socio-emotional skills and autonomy, in the promotion of coexistence and belonging, and in financial education, crucial dimensions for integral development.

The findings offer an empirical and multidimensional diagnosis of the school experience, highlighting the urgent need to align pedagogical practices with discoveries from the neuroscience of learning to promote students’ integral development. However, it is essential to acknowledge the limitations of this study, such as the sample being restricted to 60 students from a single private higher education institution in São Paulo, which prevents generalizations to the universe of Brazilian youth and may introduce a socioeconomic bias. The retrospective nature of the assessments may also be subject to memory biases, although the analytical maturity of the participants lends credibility to the criticisms. For future studies, it is suggested to replicate the research with more diverse samples, including students from public institutions and different geographical regions, the inclusion of demographic and contextual variables, and the conduct of longitudinal studies to capture the temporal dynamics of school well-being perceptions. The main contribution lies in providing concrete subsidies for educators, managers, and educational policymakers to rethink school as a space that cultivates not only academic knowledge but also well-being and essential skills for life in the 21st century.

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Article originating from a Final Course Work on Neuroscience and Learning in Education

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