Cognition and Rhythm: Understanding How Executive Functions Shape the Musical Experience

Elisa Maria Prevedel Varro; Marilda Aparecida Soares

DOI: 10.22167/2675-6528-202602857

Article derived from a Course Conclusion Work (TCC), with content based on the student’s original work and adapted to the editorial format of the E&S Magazine with the support of the ResumeAI tool, an artificial intelligence solution developed by Instituto Pecege for textual synthesis and organization.

Summary

An exploratory and descriptive research investigated the influence of executive functions on the rhythmic development of fourth-grade elementary school students, as well as how motor rhythmic activities promote these functions and the learning process. The study also sought to understand teachers’ perception of the impact of executive functions worked on in music classes on students’ development in other subjects. The investigation was carried out with four fourth-grade elementary school classes in 2025, in a private school. Data were collected through analysis of pedagogical documentation, observation of classroom practice, and interviews with teaching staff and school management. The qualiquantitative analyses revealed that musical rhythmic activities stimulated executive functions such as attention, inhibitory control, planning, working memory, cognitive flexibility, self-monitoring, and emotional regulation. It was concluded that the acquisition of these executive functions transcended the specific learning of music classes, manifesting in various situations of students’ daily lives and contributing significantly to general cognitive and psychomotor development.

Keywords: Learning; Education; Music; Neuroscience; Rhythm.

1. Introduction

Music education, particularly through rhythmic activities, demonstrates significant potential for cognitive development. The intrinsic relationship between music, brain function, and learning processes has been widely recognized (Levitin, 2010; Sacks, 2007). Music is not limited to artistic expression but acts as a potent stimulus for various cognitive functions. Among the fundamental musical elements, rhythm stands out due to its temporal nature and its capacity to be observed in diverse human manifestations (Fonseca, 1995).

This study is based on the perspective of psychomotricity, which considers motility as the basis of knowledge, evolving into mental actions (Fonseca, 2004). This approach suggests that activities involving movement are essential for stimulating learning and improving aspects such as balance, body schema, laterality, and motor planning (Graciani et al., 2011). Bodily experience is, therefore, recognized as fundamental for the development of body perception and spatio-temporal notions (Le Boulch, 1987).

In this context, executive functions assume a central role in understanding cognitive development. They constitute the basis of intentional behavior, enabling the individual to appropriately direct, analyze, reprogram, or interrupt actions (Cosenza and Guerra, 2011; Dias and Malloy-Diniz, 2023; Diamond, 2013). These functions encompass skills such as planning, working memory, inhibitory control, behavioral regulation, and cognitive flexibility, and are intrinsically linked to the frontal lobe and various brain structures involved in conscious cognitive processes (Marangoni and Ramiro, 2012; Amaral et al., 2022; Martín, 2024; Tieppo, 2021). Musical practice, especially rhythmic practice, offers a conducive environment for stimulating these functions, activating multiple brain areas simultaneously (Carrer and Muszkat, 2024).

Despite the recognized potential of music and psychomotricity, it is still necessary to investigate in depth how rhythmic motor activities, developed in music classes, contribute to the development of executive functions and the learning process in children. Additionally, it is crucial to understand educators’ perceptions of how working with executive functions in music classes reflects on students’ performance in other school curriculum subjects. The original research emerged from the researcher’s professional practice, with the purpose of analyzing pedagogical content and procedures from the perspective of students’ musical, cognitive, and behavioral learning.

The interest in brain function, particularly regarding executive functions related to rhythmic making, justifies the search for data that can support a more efficient, reflective, and grounded teaching practice. Thus, this study aimed to establish relationships between rhythmic work in corporal expression experiences and motor activities in music teaching and the development of executive functions, supposing that this practice requires and stimulates planning, working memory, inhibitory control, behavioral regulation, and cognitive flexibility. Additionally, the study sought to investigate the teacher’s perception of student performance development from Music classes.

2. Material and Methods

This research, of an exploratory and descriptive nature, employed a qualiquantitative approach to investigate the relationships between rhythmic elements and cognitive components in musical and bodily activities. The study sought to understand the contribution of motor rhythmic activities in music education to the development of executive functions and learning in children, and to analyze the teacher’s perception of this impact.

The investigation was conducted in a private school in the South Zone of the City of São Paulo, which offers Early Childhood Education, Elementary School, and High School. The direct participants were seventy-eight fourth-grade Elementary School students, aged between nine and ten years old, distributed across four classes. Data collection with the students occurred in the second semester of 2025, during Music classes focused on rhythmic, psychomotor, and body expression dynamics.

Data collection from students was carried out through the analysis of pedagogical documents, which recorded the activities developed by the researcher. Formal authorization was obtained from the institution for the research. To investigate the perception of the Pedagogical Coordination of Elementary School 1 and of teachers, a semi-structured questionnaire was applied via Google Forms. Participants provided free and informed consent, with a guarantee of the confidentiality of their identities, in accordance with ethical criteria.

The motor rhythmic activities analyzed included body expression dynamics and games involving rhythm and movement. The specific dynamics were: Musical Follow the Leader, Minesweeper Hopscotch, Ball Circle, Musical Tag, and Back and Forth Hopscotch. Each activity was designed to stimulate psychomotor aspects and executive functions, being implemented and observed by the researcher.

The Siga o Mestre Musical consisted of students moving freely around the room, following the rhythm of a drum with variations in intensity and tempo. Gradually, rhythmic cells and pauses were introduced, using two drums to alternate foot and hand movements, requiring coordination and attention to rhythmic changes.

The Minesweeper Hopscotch was marked on the ground with masking tape, containing ten lines and four squares per line, with some squares “mined” (X). Specific jumping rules were applied, and the dynamic required a continuous flow of participants. The Ball Circle activity involved the students in a circle, passing a tennis ball to the sound of a drum, with the complexity increased by the introduction of varied rhythms.

In Musical Tag, students dispersed around the room, while one of them, with a stick, tried to tag their colleagues. The movement was restricted to one step per beat of a drum in a quaternary measure, with the difficulty adjusted by the introduction of varied measures. The “Amarelinha Vai e Vem” (Hopscotch Go and Come) was structured with ten lines and three squares per line, where students performed sequences of jumps and claps, following the African music “Ayele”. The activity evolved to the sequential entry of students and, later, to two classes in opposite directions, requiring rhythmic and spatial precision.

The qualiquantitative data analysis was performed based on pedagogical records and questionnaire responses. For rhythmic motor activities, the data were analyzed considering executive functions, rhythmic and psychomotor elements, focusing on entry, pause, execution, and completion accuracy. Teacher perception was analyzed from the obtained responses.

The theoretical foundation of the research, based on Vygotsky’s socio-historical theory (1991), guided the understanding that higher psychological functions derive from social life and that cognitive development occurs in the zone of proximal development. This perspective supported the analysis of rhythmic dynamics as purposeful activities, whose rules demand attention and regulation, crucial elements for executive functions.

3. Results and Discussion

The analysis of pedagogical actions developed in Music classes with fourth-year elementary school students revealed the intrinsic relationship between motor rhythmic activities and the development of executive functions, as well as the teacher’s perception of this influence on the general learning process. The study considered the guidelines of the National Common Curricular Base (BNCC) (Brazil, 2018) and Neuroscience concepts, seeking to understand how musical practice stimulates essential skills and competencies. The findings demonstrate that musical experience, especially rhythmic activity, acts as a catalyst for cognitive and psychomotor improvement, extending beyond the music class environment and impacting students’ daily lives.

Among the rhythmic activities performed in Music classes, the following were analyzed: the dynamics of corporal expression, hopscotch games with song or drum accompaniment, rhythmic variations and psychomotor practices, the Musical Tag game, and the activity with a ball and squatting in different time signatures. These activities allowed for the identification of aspects such as attention, inhibitory control and planning, flexibility of actions, behavior monitoring, emotional regulation, and working memory, directly related to executive functions, as proposed by scholars in the field, such as Cosenza and Guerra (2011), Dias and Malloy-Diniz (2023), and Diamond (2013). Other musical and psychomotor aspects were also considered, such as errors and successes in the moments of entry, pause, execution, and completion of activities, balance, temporal coordination, lateralization, global praxis, and body awareness.

Analysis of the activities developed in light of the theoretical frameworks

The Follow the Musical Master dynamic explored sound elements (intensity, pitch, tempo) for a bodily sensory experience, aiming to sensitize students to musical enjoyment and performance, according to Swanwick (2003). The absence of obstacles and the rule of not touching colleagues enhanced spatial awareness (Vayer, 1984) and peripheral vision (Le Boulch, 1987). Psychomotor aspects such as lateralization, body awareness, and spatio-temporal structuring were significantly stimulated, aligning with Fonseca (2004) and Sousa (2007).

In this activity, direct stimulus to inhibitory control was observed, manifested in students’ ability to inhibit impulsive responses and control distracting stimuli, especially during breaks (Tieppo, 2021). Self-monitoring and cognitive flexibility were required by the adaptation to rhythmic changes, intensity variations, and rule alterations (Amaral et al., 2022). In the end, good execution of pauses and the beginnings and ends of movements was verified, indicating effective sensitization to dynamic and rhythmic musical elements, with advances in psychomotor development and cognitive flexibility.

The Minesweeper Hopscotch promoted rhythmic development through psychomotor experiences, focusing on space-time, body awareness, and balance. The complexity of the rules, with forbidden squares and specific jumps, intensely demanded operational memory, or working memory. This executive function is fundamental for organizing information and processing basic attitudes, according to Masruha (2018), being crucial for successful navigation through the course.

Additionally, the activity demanded planning and behavior monitoring (Cosenza and Guerra, 2011). The ability to mentally predict the motor sequence (Wallon, 1995) and inhibition control (Galvão, 1995) were exercised. Movement programming, which occurs in the frontal lobe (Fonseca, 2004), was activated, and the notion of time for each task (Tieppo, 2021) improved. At the end, the rhythmic activity achieved its objective, with a good response from psychomotor components and the executive functions of working memory and planning.

The Roda com Bolinha game, accompanied by a drum in a quaternary beat, required high attention from students to filter information and organize stimuli (Lucia and Zaninotto, 2017). The objective was rhythmic development, readiness, and speed in movements, stimulating psychomotor aspects such as tone, balance, spatial and body awareness, and global praxis. The initial dynamic with the ball and squats at specific times demanded concentration and coordination.

During execution, monitoring of behavior and self-regulation were requested, involving the control of impulses and emotions (Tieppo, 2021). The rule of temporarily leaving the wheel for those who made a mistake generated irritation in two students, offering an opportunity for the construction of emotional regulation. Although emotions can hinder attention and working memory (Martín, 2024), welcoming and encouragement contributed to neural maturation, decreasing emotional reactions with the maturation of higher psychic functions (Wallon, 1995; Galvão, 1995).

At the end of the classes, it was observed that maintaining the rhythmic sequence was challenging, but the students, with effort, managed. Psychomotor aspects such as tone, balance, spatial and bodily perception, and global praxis were well stimulated. Executive functions of attention, self-monitoring, self-regulation, and emotional regulation found fertile ground for stimulation, demonstrating the importance of situations that require emotional self-regulation, provided they are met with affection and respect.

The class with Musical Tag aimed at rhythmic development, requiring high balance from a psychomotor perspective. The motor activities requested notion of distance, trajectory, body awareness and laterality (Berger, 2016), in addition to mental representation of movement (Le Boulch, 1987). Temporal perception was fundamental for movement at the correct time, involving hearing and kinesthetic sense, with the introduction of varied tempos to increase difficulty.

The executive functions required in this game included attention, inhibitory control, planning, focus, cognitive flexibility, and behavior monitoring. Cognitive flexibility, in particular, stood out as the ability to review plans and readjust them (Tieppo, 2021). In the end, the ease of performing the activity was noted, and it could be repeated numerous times. Rhythmic and psychomotor aspects were contemplated and competently performed, and the executive functions of focus, inhibitory control, planning, cognitive flexibility, and behavior monitoring were fully achieved.

The Amarelinha Vai e Vem game aimed at the rhythmic maintenance of activity, accompanied by the African song Ayele. This activity demanded significant temporal coordination and rhythmic perception, in addition to psychomotor bases such as balance, laterality, body awareness, and global praxis (Sousa, 2007). The final part, with two groups meeting from opposite sides, required rigorous rhythm maintenance to avoid collisions, intensifying the need for precision and planning.

The executive functions worked on included planning, attention, inhibitory control, and self-monitoring (Amaral et al., 2022; Cosenza and Guerra, 2011). The ease in performing the task, despite the complexity of the rules, was remarkable. The students performed the rhythmic sequence with ease, making mistakes only twice by falling out of rhythm, which demonstrates the speed in planning the activity, according to Tieppo (2021) on the automation of movements. Focus and cognitive flexibility were also successfully achieved.

Investigation with faculty and pedagogical coordination

The investigation with teachers and pedagogical coordination sought to understand educators’ perception of the influence of Music classes on the development of executive functions and the general learning of students. The study included 16 female teachers, working in four second-grade classes (71 students, 7-8 years old), three third-grade classes (61 students, 8-9 years old), four fourth-grade classes (78 students, 9-10 years old), and five fifth-grade classes (87 students, 10-11 years old). The majority of respondents, 87.5%, had a degree in Pedagogy, while 6.3% had a degree in Mathematics and another 6.3% in Letters.

Regarding graduate studies, thirteen faculty members held graduate degrees in various areas of education, including one with a master’s degree, and three did not have postgraduate qualifications. Professional experience in education was predominantly long-term, with 43.8% of respondents working for over 30 years, 31.3% between 20 and 30 years, and 18.8% between 10 and 20 years. Only 6.3% had less than 10 years of teaching experience. In relation to the time of service at the specific school, 62.5% worked between 11 and 20 years, 25% for over 31 years, and 12.5% between 1 and 10 years.

The classes for which the respondents taught in 2025 were distributed as follows: 40% in the fifth year, 26.7% in the third year, 20% in the fourth year, and 13.3% in the second year. This profile demonstrates an experienced teaching staff with solid training, which lends robustness to their perceptions of the impact of musical activities on student development, providing a reliable basis for analyzing the influence of executive functions worked on in Music classes on overall student performance.

Regarding sustained attention, 78% of teachers perceived an improvement in student performance, although they could not distinguish whether the effect was exclusive to music classes. A minority of 7% rarely perceived this improvement, while 14% perceived it frequently. This data suggests that, although music classes contribute, attention is a multifaceted construct, influenced by various sources of stimuli, but with a general positive impact.

Regarding the need for repetitions to understand verbal commands, 57% of respondents perceived that students frequently needed fewer repetitions, 35% rarely perceived this reduction, and 7% never perceived it. The speed in responding to auditory signals, such as clapping or voice, was also positively evaluated, with 85.7% of teachers perceiving this improvement frequently and 14.4% always. These results indicate an enhancement in students’ auditory processing capacity and response readiness throughout the academic year.

The students’ ability to identify external sounds or distractions without losing focus on tasks was another point investigated. The majority of teachers, 57%, reported that most students could do this. About 21% indicated that approximately 50% of students exhibited this skill, while 7% observed that less than half could and 14.3% that only a few students demonstrated this capacity. These data suggest that musical activities may have contributed to the development of selective and sustained attention, albeit with variations among students.

Regarding working memory, 64.3% of the teachers observed that most students could perform requested activities in two or more steps without the need for constant repetition of instructions. Approximately 21% indicated that about half of the students had this ability, while 7% reported that only a few and another 7% that less than half of the students could. This development in the use of working memory throughout the school year was considered significant, reinforcing the importance of the work developed in music classes in conjunction with other areas of knowledge.

The perception regarding inhibitory control revealed that 53% of the teachers frequently noticed that students respected speaking turns. However, 33% perceived this improvement but could not directly attribute it to music classes, and 13.3% rarely observed it. This finding suggests that, although inhibitory control is stimulated, its exclusive attribution to music may be complex, given the multiplicity of factors influencing children’s behavior. Inhibitory control was identified as the skill most worked on in music classes, especially due to pauses, and its consolidation was reflected in other situations in the students’ experience.

In another aspect of inhibitory control, 50% of the teachers observed that most students quickly regained attention to commands after the recess break. About 28.6% indicated that only a few students showed this readiness, and 21.4% that approximately half of the students presented it. These results reinforce the idea that rhythmic musical activities, by requiring the inhibition of impulsive responses and the maintenance of focus, contribute to the improvement of this executive function, essential for behavioral self-regulation.

Cognitive flexibility and emotional regulation were assessed by teachers’ perception of students’ reactions to sudden changes in routine. A significant majority of 78.8% of teachers perceived that most students responded well to these changes. Approximately 14.3% indicated that about half of the students reacted positively, and 7.1% that only a few did. This data suggests that musical activities, by introducing variations and requiring adaptation, contribute to the development of the ability to review plans and readjust them, according to Tieppo’s (2021) definition of cognitive flexibility.

During the general rehearsals and the performance at the school’s Cultural Fair, the teachers observed the students’ performance in relation to executive functions. Regarding attention, 93.3% of the responses indicated frequent perception, while 6.7% rarely perceived. The students’ attention was constantly required for conducting, accompanying the piano and other instruments, and for the moments of entry, execution, and pauses. This high percentage of frequent perception underscores the effectiveness of musical activities in stimulating sustained and selective attention in performance contexts.

Regarding working memory, 100% of the teachers’ responses indicated frequent perception. The students demonstrated high competence in keeping last-minute agreements, such as changes in rules or unexpected breaks, carrying out the requests with notable skill. This result is a strong indication that musical practice, by requiring the retention and manipulation of information in real-time, significantly enhances working memory, a crucial executive function for complex learning.

For inhibitory control, 86.7% of teachers frequently perceived the use of this function, while 7% rarely perceived it. A significant portion, also 86.7%, indicated not having analyzed this aspect, which can be explained by moments of conversation during rehearsals and slight delays in concentration. Despite this, the general perception points to consistent work on inhibitory control in music classes, especially during pauses, which require the inhibition of movements and sounds.

Finally, regarding cognitive flexibility, 92.9% of the teachers frequently perceived the use of this executive function, and 7.1% rarely perceived it. This item was associated with last-minute changes in arrangements, in which the students responded very well, although this response was not fully perceived by all teachers. The ability to adapt to new instructions and readjust plans, inherent in musical practice, contributes to the development of cognitive flexibility, allowing students to deal with unforeseen events more effectively.

The open question about the general perception of the experiences and content of Music classes revealed a positive dialogue with the students’ development and learning. The responses indicated that Music classes contribute significantly to the development of executive functions, favoring learning and integral development. Musical experiences dialogue in an integrated manner with the global learning process, and the expansion of Music’s class hours could further enhance these results, promoting more in-depth and continuous work.

The teachers observed that the experiences in music classes favor motor, cognitive, and verbal development, with notable evolution in rhythm. Music was recognized as important for linguistic reasoning and memory, reflecting in students’ performance in other subjects. Furthermore, it stimulates the brain, improves memory, expands vocabulary, and aids in promoting self-expression, self-awareness, and self-esteem, contributing to social interaction, especially in inhibited children.

It was noted that the children were able to remain more focused and respected speaking times more, and in presentations, there were significant advances in skills such as attentive listening and the ability to follow instructions. The number of children with greater involvement in the proposals increased, and a large part executed what was requested with more focus and autonomy. There was a visible change in posture during presentations, with students being less restless, more concentrated, and secure.

The sense of rhythm also evolved, positively impacting the organization and timing of activities, and many children showed themselves to be less shy and more confident in public. These results demonstrate that students have developed important skills not only in music classes, but which are reflected in general learning. Only one response pointed to music as an isolated subject; however, the majority highlighted the relevance and dialogue of the Music discipline with other areas of the curriculum, evidencing its essential role in broadening skills and learning.

In summary, the results of this research demonstrate that rhythmic motor activities developed in Music classes, with fourth-grade elementary school students, act as a powerful catalyst for the development of executive functions, including attention, inhibitory control, planning, working memory, cognitive flexibility, self-monitoring, and emotional regulation. Direct observation of the activities and the perception of the teaching staff corroborate that the acquisition and improvement of these functions extrapolate the context of the music class, manifesting in various school-related situations and contributing significantly to the students’ overall cognitive and psychomotor development, according to the objectives proposed by the study.

4. Conclusion

This study sought to establish relationships between rhythmic work in corporal expression experiences and motor activities in music teaching and the development of executive functions, in addition to investigating teacher perception of student performance. It was found that rhythmic motor activities, such as corporal expression dynamics and psychomotor games, significantly stimulated executive functions such as attention, inhibitory control, planning, working memory, cognitive flexibility, self-monitoring, and emotional regulation in fourth-grade elementary school students. Direct observation of pedagogical practices revealed the constant demand and improvement of these skills. Additionally, the perception of the teaching staff and pedagogical coordination corroborated that the acquisition of these executive functions extended beyond the context of music classes, manifesting in various school-related situations and contributing to the overall cognitive and psychomotor development of the students. The teachers noted improvements in sustained attention, reduced need for command repetitions, promptness of response to auditory stimuli, and the ability to maintain focus, as well as notable development of working memory and inhibitory control.

The main contribution of this work lies in the evidence that music education, through motor-rhythmic activities, constitutes a potent pedagogical resource for the integral development of executive functions, fundamental for learning and behavior. This knowledge can support a more efficient and reflective teaching practice, in addition to promoting a better elaboration of the musical curriculum, recognizing music as an essential element for the expansion of competencies and skills in various areas of knowledge. However, the difficulty in isolating the exclusive impact of music classes on the development of some executive functions was observed, given the multiplicity of stimuli present in the school environment. For future studies, it is suggested to conduct longitudinal research that tracks the development of these functions over broader school cycles, as well as investigations that compare groups with different music education workloads or that use methodologies that allow for a more precise attribution of effects. Deepening the understanding of the relationship between the intensity of musical practice and the degree of development of executive functions can offer valuable insights for the optimization of educational programs.

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Article originating from a Final Coursework on Neuroscience and Learning in Education

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